Ways to Improve Your Vision Naturally

VisiSharp

Your eyesight is essential as it is responsible for helping you make perceptions about your surroundings and the people around you. It is essential to identify that we are highly dependent on our eyesight to help us perform almost all our daily activities. Many people underestimate the importance of your eyesight but come to identify how important it is once it is too late. In modern society, there are millions of people experiencing challenges with their eyesight, and you will locate that these people try to find a solution to this challenge. Many people have to share many struggles as they cannot access the high cost of modern medication to control different eyesight complications. VisisharpIs a unique creation whose aim is to help you improve your eyesight by offering your working solution to this. with the product, you will discover that you will access a product that requires very minimal effort to use and deliver the benefits to your body. You will find that Visisharp Is a unique creation that does not rely on Modern medication techniques to help you treat your eyes and improve your eyesight. Visisharp is a solution offering you a natural remedy to help you overcome a lot of health complications affecting your vision. Continue reading...

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Xerophthalmia and Keratomalacia

Who And Xerophthalmia

The WHO classification of xerophthalmia is shown in Table 3. This classification was first adopted in 1976 (126), with minor modification in 1982 (247). The ocular signs are Around the beginning of the nineteenth century, the terms xerosis, xerophthalmia, and xerophthalmos were often used to describe dryness and associated changes of the eye that were considered to be related to conditions such as exposure, scrofula, syphilis, trachoma, and dryness of the eyes in older adults (252-256). The term xerophthalmia was applied in relationship to night blindness, corneal ulceration, and keratomalacia after further clinical observations and the development of ideas in the 1860s (20,27). Corneal ulceration may follow corneal xerosis, and the typical corneal ulcer associated with vitamin A deficiency is round or oval with a relatively clean, punched-out appearance, as if the cornea had been altered with a small trephine (Fig. 10).

American Academy of Ophthalmology Clinical Education Secretariat Louis B Cantor MD Indiana University School of

Glaucoma Surgery Principles and Techniques, second edition Edited by Robert N. Weinreb and Richard P. Mills 7. Cataract Surgery and Intraocular Lenses A 21st-Century Perspective, second edition Edited by Jerry G. Ford and Carol L. Karp 12. Low Vision Rehabilitation Caring for the Whole Person Edited by Donald C. Fletcher 13. Glaucoma Medical Therapy Principles and Management, second edition Edited by Peter A. Netland

TABLE 4 Eye Disease in GCA

A retrospective study of eye disease occurring in 161 patients over a 17-year period provides a useful perspective of this complication (15). Visual manifestations occurred in about 26 of patients, and loss of vision in at least one eye occurred in about 15 (Table 4). Twenty-four patients had permanent vision loss in 92 of these, anterior ischemic optic neuritis was the cause. Central retinal artery occlusion occurred in 8.3 of patients as the cause of permanent visual loss, and occipital infarction caused by vertebral basilar stroke occurred in one patient (4.2 ). These authors noted that patients positive for HLA-DRB1 * 04 had visual manifestations more commonly than those who did not the phenotype was found in 42 of patients versus 26 of controls (15).

Cortical Vision Impairment Overview

Cortical vision impairment (CVI) is one of the leading causes of vision impairment among children in the United States. CVI is a condition in which the visual pathway and visual processing centers of the brain are damaged and result in reduced vision. Children and adults of all ethnicities may have cortical vision impairment. There is no medication or surgery that will correct the vision impairment of children with CVI. However, a recent paper published by Roman, et. al. reported that 95-percent of children with CVI developed higher levels of vision within a period of 3.7 years after receiving a program of visual intervention. In their research study, they decorated the work areas that the children played in and performed specific activities that involved the use of lights, colors, contrast, and other patterns. Children and adults with CVI may have other concurrent problems in addition to vision impairment.

Chinese Eye Exercises

The chinese eye exercises are based on accu-pressure points and have been practised regularly in China to help reduce the rate of eye disorders. In Chinese medicines, if the eyesight is failing, it could mean that the liver is not functioning optimally. In this situation, the liver can gradually improve through dietary changes, daily Taijiquan, qigong, yoga, meditation and reflexology. Failing eyesight could also be due to poor condition of the kidneys. Daily Taijiquan, qigong, yoga or meditation stress on stimulating and rejuvenating the kidneys. In taijiquan, all the movements involve the waist, and these movements massage the kidneys. Tao meditation also improves the quality of the jing which in turn rejuvenates the kidneys. You can do the following Chinese eye exercises after meals, during the commercial breaks while watching TV, or as often as you like.With eyes closed 1 Using the middle fingers, massage the bone of the eye sockets.

Free Eye Exercises for better vision ...Easy, Tried-and-Tested!

These eye exercises helps thousands to have better vision - without glasses, contacts or surgery. Are you tired of how often you need your glasses Or are you suffering from any of these eye problems Almost everyone now has some forms of vision problems. But do you know that there are tried and tested eye exercises that improve your eyesight - without glasses, contact lenses or lasik surgery These eye exercises help all types of poor vision and prevent common eye problems. They help you to see better at any age. They work even if your parents wear glasses, or if you have worn glasses or contacts for lots of years. FACT Glasses Or Contact Lenses Does Not Improve Your Vision No Optician Will Tell You This Minus lenses are the most common approach, yet the least likely to prevent further myopic progression. Unfortunately, they increase the nearpoint stress that is associated with progression. -May, 1984. Optometric Extension Program Foundation.

Free Printable Eye Chart or Eye Exam Chart For Vision Test

A eye exam chart is important kit for your eye improvement process. If you have seen a eye exam chart before, you may be curious about how the eye chart was invented. The eye chart was first designed by a Dutch ophthalmologist, Herman Snellen in 1860s. At first, the purpose was to determine distance acuity (i.e. the sharpness or clarity of vision). A visual acuity score of 20 20 is considered as normal vision. Visual acuity scores of 20 32 or 20 40 (i.e. 6 9 or 6 12 in metre terms) indicates the presence of significant but low-power refractive errors. Visual acuity of between 20 63 and 20 200 (i.e. 6 18 and 6 60 in metre terms) is moderate refractive errors. Those with severe myopia will not be able to see 20 200 (i.e. 6 60 in metre terms) without glasses. A person with worse than 6 60 visual acuity despite the best glasses correction, is considered as legally blind. On the other hand, if you have 20 15 vision (i.e.

Reduce Computer Eye Strain

If this picture looks familiar, you'd better start learning how to reduce computer eye strain. What could have caused this achy sensation in the eyes - eye strain Only a good eye exam can determine whether both eyes are centered in the same place or, for example, if one of the six eye muscles is pulling on the eye a little differently from others and causing the two eyes to be misaligned. Rarely, a more serious problem can lead to eye strain-like symptoms or headache. Headaches around the eyes can also produce symptoms similar to those of computer eye strain. Working under fluorescent lights can cause eye strain as well as other problems, including migraine attacks. The symptoms of eyestrain include Using your eyes intently for hours in an enclosed space without resting contributes not only to eye strain but also to other health problems.

Astigmatism Treatment

Understanding how astigmatism develops can be instrumental in astigmatism treatment and prevention. Astigmatism is a visual defect which is caused by an irregularity in the surface of either the cornea or the crystalline lens. People with severe astigmatism will usually have blurred or distorted vision at all distance, while those with mild astigmatism may experience headaches, eye strain, fatigue or blurred vision at certain distances. To check whether you have astigmatism, you would need the Astigmatism Dial Chart Do not use glasses in this test for Astigmatism. If all the lines appear equally clear, it indicates an absence of astigmatism. If the line of a particular meridian appears darker than the rest and if the line perpendicular to it appears the least clear, it is an indication of astigmatism. The greater the difference in tone between the clear and the blurred lines, the greater the degree of astigmatism. 3. Do the eye exercises in in non-glaring light.

Myopia In Child & Adult

Myopia in child, as compared to myopia in adult, has a better chance of improvement through eye care. This is because the child's eyes are still growing and has better self-healing ability. First, let's see what is myopia Myopia is commonly known as short-sightedness . A person with myopia is able to see close objects clearly but objects that are further away will appear blurred. When the normal eye looks at an object, light rays from the object enter our eye. These light rays are bent at the cornea and the eye lens before forming an image on the inner layer of the eye called the retina. This image is then transmitted by nerve signals to the brain. The brain interprets these signals so that we see the object. If the light rays are focused directly on the retina, we see a sharp image. Therefore, myopia in child occurs when the light rays from distant objects are focused in front of the retina instead of on it, resulting in blurred images on the retina.

Eye Relaxation Exercises for Eye Strain

Eye relaxation exercises gives relief for dry eyes, computer eye strain and other eye strain symptoms. If your work is deskbound, or if you face the computer screen for hours, you would have these eye strain symptom fatigue, blurred vision, headache. These compresses open up the small blood vessels of the face and eyeballs, and therefore relieve eye strain.

Eye Exercises for Myopia - a natural vision improvement programme that works!

Here Are Simple Eye Exercises for MyopiaThat Take Only Minutes A Day To Get Better Vision While you may have these questions, but let's face it, wouldn't you just like to read, work and drive without glasses or contacts within weeks from now Wouldn't you just hope to spend your hard-earned money on better things, instead of wasting mega bucks on glasses, contacts or even lasik surgery Yes, this could be the most eye-opening article you'll ever read. These eye exercises for myopia could work for you If you expect overnight result, let me tell you that it's not going to happen that way. You've to be determined to do the eye exercises regularly. These eye exercises work for thousands, and it will work for you too BUT you need to build it into your daily routine. If you have decided to give this do-it-yourself vision improvement method (which is a safe, healthy alternative to glasses, contacts and even laser surgery) a try. Then you should read on.

Peripheral Vision

Peripheral Vision Cranial Nerve

Record the patient's visual fields with his right eye field on your right. Mark his right field with Rt. and his left field with Lt. Indicate central vision with a plus sign. Add the visual acuity (corrected or uncorrected), date, and shade the blind areas. Figure 1-7. Record the patient's visual fields with his right eye field on your right. Mark his right field with Rt. and his left field with Lt. Indicate central vision with a plus sign. Add the visual acuity (corrected or uncorrected), date, and shade the blind areas. When making notes about visual fields, draw the patterns in the patient's history as though they were your own fields (Figure 1-7), that is, the right eye field on your right and the left eye field on your left. Include the visual acuity and date.

Low Vision FAQ

Low vision is a significant reduction of visual function that cannot be corrected to the normal range by ordinary glasses, contact lenses, medical treatment and or surgery. People are considered partially sighted if their best-corrected visual acuity is 20 70 or less in their good eye. Even when wearing regular corrective lenses, partially sighted people cannot read standard newsprint, or see expressions on a person's face. There are approximately 4.3 million Americans who have been diagnosed as partially sighted. An estimated 8-10 million more Americans report vision problems that interfere with their ability to perform daily activities without help. If a person's best corrected visual acuity is 20 200 or less, or if their visual field is no more than 20 degrees, the person is defined as legally blind. The absence of any usable vision is called functional blindness or total blindness. Only about 1 in 10 people who are visually impaired are functionally blind.

Developing Your Children’s Vision

A Guide for Parents of Infants and Young Children with Vision Impairment This checklist can help you identify eye problems in your child The purpose of this article is to provide parents, teachers and therapists with critical information to help the child who has a vision impairment. Children born with impaired sight do not know how they are supposed to see the world. Those who develop vision problems as young children may not have the language to communicate information that could help detect these problems. Early professional intervention can make a major difference in your child's development. Having 20 20 eye sight is not necessarily perfect vision. The standard eye chart used in the offices of doctors and school nurses measures how well a child can recognize a black letter from a distance of twenty feet with one eye. But this test detects less than 20 of children's vision problems.

Getting and Keeping Glasses on Young Children

Looking good Let the young child choose new frames for their prescription glasses. Whenever a young child picks their own frames it helps them take pride in their ownership. Parents can assist their child by providing several suitable choices. They should be supportive and compliment their child by telling them they look good wearing their new eyeglasses. This helps the child's self-confidence. Parents should consider price, style, and fit when helping their child choose new eyeglass frames. They should also take into consideration that young children frequently break or lose eyeglasses. In some instances parents may decide paying a little more, for better durability or for free warranty replacement, is worth the additional cost. Practice pair Let a young child adjust to wearing new eyeglasses with a breaking-in period to establish the habit of wearing glasses.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Traditional Chinese Medicine are useful in treating many eye disorders, such as chronic red eyes and conjunctivitis. Acupuncture and Chinese eye exercises based on accu-pressure point are traditional Chinese techniques available for vision improvement. Chinese eye exercises are easy to learn. So, there is no need for your to be an expert in traditional Chinese medicine to practise them. Some chinese herbs have been found to be effective in treating various eye conditions

Convergence Insufficiency

Efficient convergence is necessary for troublefree near-point work. Convergence insufficiency gives rise to eye-strain, headaches, watering and intermittent double vision (jumbling together of letters) following a certain period of near-point work like reading or writing. Before we go on to the eye exercises for farsightedness, there are a few points to take note of 1. First, read and understand the steps of each eye exercise carefully. 3. Do the eye exercises in in non-glaring light. Vision chart or targets should be well lit at all times. 7. As our eyes are tired after a whole-day work, early morning is the best time for eye exercises. 8. If you do not have enough time to complete all the eye exercises for farsightedness, you can do some in the morning and finish the rest in the later part of the day.

Errors of Refraction: Their Cure

The thing to do if one has an error of refraction, therefore, is not to wear glasses but to learn how to use the eyes correctly. This means seeing best with the center of sight, the fovea centralis previously alluded to, and this means that a very small part of everything one looks at is seen best and everything else less distinctly in proportion as it is removed from the central point. This is called Central Fixation and is the basis of the treatment of errors of refraction without glasses. When the eye looks at objects with central fixation it is at rest, the muscles which control the refraction act normally, and maximum vision is attained. In the upper picture the sight is centered upon one spot, the upper left-hand corner of the letter R, which is seen more clearly and appears to be blacker than the rest of the field of vision. This is central fixation. In the lower picture the subject is endeavoring to see every part of her field of vision equally well at the same time.

The Top 5 Causes of Blindness

In the past, vision loss would probably have been caused more by malnutrition, such as vitamin A deficiency, and by infectious diseases, such as trachoma, which are still major problems in developing countries. The incidence of such diseases will continue to rise as the population is ageing rapidly, but it takes time for people to modify their lifestyles to promote good eye health. It may be decades before any change can be seen. It is not known exactly what proportion of the population here is blind or has low vision, which is defined as the inability to see well enough to drive. A study on 3,280 Malays aged 40 to 79, completed in 2006, gives an idea of the extent of vision loss and sight-threatening eye diseases here. The Singapore Malay Eye Study found that 0.3 per cent of the Malay population here are blind in both eyes, and 4.4 per cent have low vision in both eyes.

Squint Strabismus

Such constant overworking of the weak muscles has its deleterious effects. A person with a hidden squint commonly suffers from eye-strain, undue eye-fatigue, headaches and occasional double vision. Before we go on to the eye exercises for farsightedness, there are a few points to take note of 3. Do the eye exercises in in non-glaring light. Vision chart or targets should be well lit at all times. 7. As our eyes are tired after a whole-day work, early morning is the best time for eye exercises. 8. If you do not have enough time to complete all the eye exercises for farsightedness, you can do some in the morning and finish the rest in the later part of the day. To accelerate the progress of this vision therapy, we recommend that you download and practise The 10 powerful visual techniques daily It should be noted that a refractive error (e.g. Myopia) and a muscular problem (e.g. convergence insufficiency or exophoria) may co-exist in a person.

Nervous system and sensory organs

Snake Vomeronasal Organ

Photoreceptors consist of rods and cones. These structures bear protein molecules that capture light energy and convert it to nerve signals. The rods function best in dim light, whereas the cones function best in bright light and provide higher resolution. Varying abilities to differentiate color depend on the possession of multiple visual pigments, each of which absorbs maximally at different wavelengths of light. Some reptiles, such as arboreal snakes, have keyhole pupils, which enhance binocular vision (similar images are formed simultaneously on both retinas of the two eyes), and a fovea, where high densities of cones on the retina provide high visual acuity. Slender head shape, especially an attenuated snout, confers considerable overlap of vision in the two eyes. The eyes of chameleons are unique among vertebrates in their degree of movement and ability to scan the environment. Each eye is located on a turret and moves independently of the other.

Afferent Pupillary Defect Marcus Gunn Pupil

Marcus Gunn Pupil

In Low-Vision Infant. maintained and, with near fixation, accommodative miosis makes interpretation difficult. In such circumstances, normal room illumination can be used to assess optic nerve function10 (Fig. 2-3 demonstrates this technique). This approach is especially helpful in the infant or toddler who invariably fixates on the light source, making traditional testing impossible. An afferent pupillary defect can even be detected if one of the pupils is non-reactive secondary to trauma, pharmacological dilation, or ocular inflammation (Fig. 2-3). In such cases, the direct and consensual responses of the single reactive pupil must be compared. If the consensual response is less than the direct response there is an abnormality in that eye. The afferent pupillary defect is a sensitive indicator of optic nerve dysfunction and, more specifically, visual field loss.

Low Illumination Acuity Testing

Neonate Optokinetic Nystagmus

Testing visual acuity under reduced illumination can be used to distinguish amblyopia (strabismic or anisometropic) from retinal or optic nerve dysfunction.14 If the illumination to a normal eye is decreased using a neutral density filter (no. 96 2-Log filter Kodak), the vision will be mildly reduced from 20 20 to 20 40. In an eye with a retinal or optic nerve lesion, the vision will be reduced dramatically (20 40 to 20 200) whereas an eye with amblyopia will exhibit little or no reduction (20 40 to 20 50). (Neutral-density filters can be obtained in most camera shops.) Newer electrophysiological methods of assessing FIGURE 2-2A,B. (A) Child with lights on. (B) Same child immediately after lights are turned down. Note marked retraction of the upper lids. This reflex indicates some visual function. FIGURE 2-2A,B. (A) Child with lights on. (B) Same child immediately after lights are turned down. Note marked retraction of the upper lids. This reflex indicates some visual function.

Lobbying CMS to Make Administrative Changes to the Sustainable Growth Rate SGR Formula for Updating the Medicare

Reconstructive Surgery American Academy of Family Physicians American Academy of Neurology American Academy of Nurse Practitioners American Academy of Ophthalmology American Academy of Otolaryngology Head American Society of Addiction Medicine American Society of Anesthesiologists American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery

Model For The Ageimpaired Medial Temporal System

Difference Rat Human Hippocampus

For spatial learning assessment, the platform stays in one maze quadrant with a randomized starting position for each trial. On every sixth trial, the platform is retracted to the bottom of the pool (probe trial) for the first 30 seconds of the 90-second trial. Our primary measures of hippocampal function are obtained by proximity measures both on the training trials and interpolated probe trials described in detail below. Very importantly, on the ninth day of training, we test sensorimotor skills and escape motivation independent of spatial learning by giving the rats a training session with six trials of cued training. During cued training trials, rats are trained to escape to a visible platform that protrudes above the water and that varies in position on each trial. On each trial, a rat is started in a novel location and has 30 seconds to reach the platform at which point it remains there briefly prior to a 30-second intertrial interval.

Pictures Of A One Month Old Foetus

Six Month Old Fetus

Jeanne Calment, a woman with the distinction (at the time) of being listed in The Guinness Book of Records as oldest living human, was turning 120 years old. Although she was able to ride her bicycle daily up until her 100th birthday, after that Jeanne began to feel some physical effects of her many years. Her hearing diminished, and she lost her vision to cataracts. She hadn't been able to walk since breaking her hip in her 115th year. But this oldest living human still had a sharp wit. When reporters asked her what type of future she anticipated, she answered, A very short one.

Numerical Chromosomal Abnormalities

Trisomy Zygote

Trisomy 21, or Down syndrome (Figure 22-2 A-C), is characterized by moderate mental retardation, microcephaly, microphthalmia, colobomata, cataracts and glaucoma, flat nasal bridge, epicanthic folds, protruding tongue, simian crease in the hand, and congenital heart defects. Alzheimer's neurofibrillary tangles and plaques are found in Down syndrome patients who are older than 30 years. Acute megakaryocyte leukemia (AMKL) is frequently present.

Tunica Vasculosa Lentis

Lens Fetal Eyes

The clinical lens anomaly, Mittendorfs dot, is a small (1-2mm) area of fibrosis on the posterior capsule and is probably a manifestation of incomplete regression of the hyaloid artery where it attaches to the posterior capsule. The regression of the pupillary membrane begins during the sixth month and is usually complete by the eighth month. Persistent pupillary membranes result from incomplete regression. These iris strands may connect to an anterior polar cataract (Fig. 1-17) or area of corneal endothelial fibrosis.

Disorders of Supranuclear Eye Movements

Refixation Saccades

Clinical Assessment The parents of children are asked about any associated developmental abnormality. A complete ophthalmic examination is performed to rule out any strabismus or amblyopia, as strabismus has been reported in 22 of these patients in one series.195 Vision, electroretinogram (ERG), and visual evoked potential (VEP) are normal in the congenital saccade initiation failure patients.164,451 Any coexistent abnormal vision, nystagmus, or abnormal ERG or VEP suggests associated disease.451 Neurological abnormalities or dysmorphic features are further investigated by the appropriate subspecialists. A brain MRI is necessary for any suspected neurological disorder, to look for any midline malformation, particularly around the fourth ventricle and cerebellar vermis.83 Spasm of the Near Reflex Spasm of the near reflex, also referred to as convergence spasm, is characterized by intermittent spasm of convergence, of miosis, and of accommodation.

Combined Ocular Motor Nerve Palsies

The ophthalmologist needs to be familiar with certain generalized neuropathies that may initially present with acute ophthalmoplegia. In a series of 60 patients with acute bilateral ophthalmoplegia, Guillain-Barre and Miller Fisher syndromes accounted for the diagnosis in 15 of 28 patients under age 45.253 The bulbar variant of Guillain-Barre syndrome (acute postinfectious polyneuritis) frequently presents as a rapidly progressive, painless ophthalmoplegia. Early in the course, involvement of eye movements may be incomplete and mimic either unilateral or bilateral oculomotor nerve palsies, but complete oph-thalmoplegia with or without involvement of the pupils and accommodation typically evolves within several days. Partial ptosis usually accompanies severe limitation of eye move-ments,413 but levator function may be entirely normal or completely absent.

Physical characteristics Mkc

Characteristics Mammals

Tiny eyes and poor eyesight are typical of insectivores. Moles and desmans (talpids) are almost blind and in many mature species the eyes are entirely covered with fur. Most insectivores have small external ears, some concealed under fur. Moles have no external ears. Asiatic water shrews (Chi-marrogale) have tiny ears featuring a valvular flap that seals the opening when they submerge themselves in water. The cone-shaped snouts characteristic of insectivores come in many different sizes and perform a wide variety of tasks. The ethmoturbinal bones (bony plates that support nasal membranes) are large. Coiled scrolls of bone make up the nasal chamber that is covered with olfactory epithelium, the receptors of which are stimulated by airborne chemical molecules. The insectivore olfactory sense is very keen. Some snouts are long and thin with flexible tips for prodding in muddy areas, others are short and stubby with leathery pads on the tip.

Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid

Pemphigus With Edentolous Patient

FIGURE 31 Mucous membrane pemphigoid. Middle-aged edentulous adult female with history of stomatitis of six months duration involving the upper and lower alveolar ridges. Observe the broad, confluent, ulcerated pseudomembrane-covered zones extending from the crest of the alveolar ridge to the reflection of the labial vestibule. An ophthalmologic workup was negative for ocular mucosal disease involvement. Direct immunofluorescence findings showed IgG and C3 deposits at the basement membrane zone. Source Courtesy of Charles Dunlap, DDS. FIGURE 31 Mucous membrane pemphigoid. Middle-aged edentulous adult female with history of stomatitis of six months duration involving the upper and lower alveolar ridges. Observe the broad, confluent, ulcerated pseudomembrane-covered zones extending from the crest of the alveolar ridge to the reflection of the labial vestibule. An ophthalmologic workup was negative for ocular mucosal disease involvement.

Trigonocephaly And Angels Kisses

Brushfield spot Mottled, marbled, or speckled elevation of the iris due to increased density of the anterior border layer of the iris white or light yellow iris nodule caused by deposition or aggregation of stromal fibrocytes observed in 85 percent of patients with Down syndrome. Can be noted in the normal population (about 25 percent). buphthalmos Congenital glaucoma keratoglobus, or enlargement of the eye.

Clinical Correlations

Congenital Lens Opacities

Note the cleft in the iris (black spot at arrow). (B) Congenital cataracts. Note the lens opacities in both eyes. (C) Congenital glaucoma (buphthalmos). Note the enlarged left eye and the normal right eye. (D) Detached retina. Note rhe retina (arrow) detached from the choroid and sclera. L lens. (A, From Bergsma D ed Birth Defects Atlas and Compendium. Baltimore, Williams & Wi kins, 1973, Fig. 6.47. B-D, From Gilbert-Barness E Potters Atlas of Fetal and Infant Pathology. St Louis, CV Mosby, 1998, pp 366 and 370.) Figure 14-3. (A) Coloboma iridis. Note the cleft in the iris (black spot at arrow). (B) Congenital cataracts. Note the lens opacities in both eyes. (C) Congenital glaucoma (buphthalmos). Note the enlarged left eye and the normal right eye. (D) Detached retina. Note rhe retina (arrow) detached from the choroid and sclera. L lens. (A, From Bergsma D ed Birth Defects Atlas and Compendium. Baltimore, Williams & Wi kins, 1973, Fig. 6.47.

Significance to humans Rsd

Horseshoe crabs have been harvested for food and bait. They also have been processed into fertilizer. Perhaps most important, horseshoe crabs have enabled numerous human health advances. Studies of the eyes of horseshoe crabs have led to therapies for human eye disorders. The blood of horse- ucts such as contact lenses, surgical sutures, and skin lotion. The chitin forms a chemical that removes metals and toxins from water, and its fat-absorbing properties help remove fat and cholesterol from the human body.

Trisomy 21 Downs Syndrome

The ocular features include epicanthus, upward slanting of the palpebral fissures, myopia, strabismus, nystagmus, blepari-tis, ectropion of the eyelids, keratoconus, Brushfield spots of the irides, infantile glaucoma, congenital or acquired cataracts, and an increased number of retinal vessels crossing the disc margin.42 '46 130 '322,353 The pathological features include focal condensation or hyperplasia of the iris in the region of the Brushfield spots, choroidal congestion, elongation of the ciliary processes, and focal hyperplasia of the retinal pigment

Bioavailability In Ocular Compartments

Intraocular Compartments Images

From the standpoint of the body as a whole, the eye is a component of the systemic compartment, which is composed of multiple subcompartments, such as tears, cornea, aqueous, iris, ciliary body, vitreous, sclera, retina, and lens. Often, the first pharmacokinetic information obtained for a drug is the corneal permeability coefficient, which is the corneal flux divided by the product of the initial drug concentration times the corneal surface area.5 Usually, this information can be obtained in vitro using Ussing-type chambers.6 The usual values obtained for a large number of compounds used in ophthalmology range from 0.44 x 10-6 to 78.8 x 10-6 cm sec. In normal humans, the basal rate of tear flow is approximately 1 mL min, and the physiologic turnover rate is approximately 10 to 15 per minute, which decreases with age. Basal tear flow is usually lower in patients with keratoconjunctivitis sicca and slightly higher in contact lens wearers.

Varicella Zoster Virus Infections during Pregnancy

John Kennedy Death Body

The characteristic clinical findings consist of skin lesions in dermatomal distribution (fig. 1), neurological defects, eye diseases, and limb hypoplasia (table 2). Less frequent abnormalities include muscle hypoplasia, affections of the internal organs as well as gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and cardiovascular manifestations 13 . There were only small differences regarding to the dependence of symptoms on the onset of maternal chickenpox. In early infection, neurological defects and limb hypoplasia were more numerous than skin lesions and eye diseases which were dominant when maternal disease occurred later. No relationship has been reported in the literature between number of clinical features, gestational age of maternal varicella and immune response in the infant 4 . Nearly 30 of infants born with signs of CVS died during the first months of life.

Adjunctive Medical Therapy

After diagnosing a patient with glaucoma, in the United States the clinician usually prescribes topical medication as the initial treatment regimen. Ophthalmologists are fortunate to have many drugs in their arsenal today that are effective at lowering intraocular pressure (IOP) while requiring less frequent dosing and causing fewer systemic and ocular side effects than previous generations of glaucoma medications. While this provides the clinician with more options, it can also cause confusion. The ophthalmologist must choose one from among more than a handful of drops as initial single therapy. This decision is more clear-cut when patients have relative contraindications to particular drugs, such as avoiding beta blockers in patients with asthma or heart block or trying alternatives to carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs) in patients who are sulfa allergic. Otherwise, decisions may often be based upon experience or the clinician's comfort level with a particular medication.

Genetics and Clinical Presentation of the Myotonic Dystrophies DM1 Versus DM2 Disease Many Similarities but Significant

Prior to discussing disease models for DM pathogenesis, it is important to distinguish between the clinical presentations of types 1 and 2. Another related disorder with severe frontotemporal dementia, myotonia and DM-type cataracts, but no genetic linkage to DMPK or ZNF9, has been suggested as a candidate for DM type 3 (DM3) (Le Ber et al. 2004). However, the molecular basis for this disease, and its relationship to DM1 and DM2, is still obscure and therefore discussion of this disease will be reserved for a future review. Both DM1 and DM2 are characterized by a distinguishing pattern of mul-tisystemic abnormalities, including myotonia, muscle weakness, distinctive particulate cataracts, cardiac conduction defects and insulin insensitivity (Table 1) (reviewed in Finsterer 2002 Mankodi and Thornton 2002 Day et al. 2003 Meola and Moxley 2004 Day and Ranum 2005 Machuca-Tzili et al. 2005).

High Iop On Initial Presentation

Patients presenting with extremely elevated IOP (e.g., 50 mm Hg) usually have symptoms. Unlike the chronically elevated IOP found with primary open-angle glaucoma or some forms of secondary glaucoma, acutely elevated IOP can cause blurry vision, pain, haloes around lights, nausea, vomiting, red eye, and corneal swelling.21 On the other hand, optic nerve or visual field damage is less frequently found with acutely elevated IOP, because the symptoms bring attention to the disorder early on. With chronic IOP elevation, however, disease progression is indolent and may present with severe optic nerve damage despite a lack of symptoms. Table 11.2 lists the most common causes of acutely elevated IOP. When patients with extremely elevated IOP are evaluated, it is important to perform a complete ophthalmic examination, including gonioscopy.

Stevensjohnson syndrome

The remaining interventions are similar to those of patients suffering thermal burns thermal environmental control, fluid replacement, pain control, nutritional support, and antibacterial treatment when needed. Intubation and mechanical ventilation are needed when the trachea and bronchi are involved. Anticoagulation has been recommended, because thromboembolism and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) are important causes of morbidity and mortality. Aggressive management by an ophthalmologist is necessary. Mortality rates for SJS range from 5 to 10 and increase to 30 to 40 for cases of TEN. Most patients die of sepsis or pulmonary involvement. SJS and TEN can produce significant ocular sequelae, including severe visual loss in a significant number of patients, requiring intensive involvement of an ophthalmologist. Residual skin discoloration, persistent erosions of the mucous membranes, phimosis, abnormal nail regrowth, and synechiae of the genital mucosae can also occur.

Breaking the News The Role of the Physician

Ianet and Marc thought their life was as close to perfection as any family's life could be. Married for 8 years, they had one daughter, Missy, age 5, and Brian, age 3 months, their long-awaited son. At Brian's 3-month routine well-baby checkup, the pediatrician remarked that Brian might have strabismus because his eyes appeared to turn in and weren't working together, as Janet later described it. The pediatrician was very reassuring, however, and told Marc and Janet that he would like the baby to be examined by a pediatric ophthalmologist just to be on the safe side. Marc had recently started a new and more responsible job so it was decided that Janet would take Brian for the eye examination herself, to minimize the amount of time Marc was away from the office. Thursday, July 14, began like many others for Janet. She got Missy off to kindergarten, kissed Marc goodbye, and packed up for the day's outing, an eye doctor's appointment.

Contraindications Kwi

Eye Floaters And Depression

Architecture of cribriform region and ciliary muscle tendon attachments in humans and higher monkeys. One type of tendon connects the anterior muscle tips to the scleral spur. A second type of tendon traverses the entire meshwork to insert into the corneal stroma. A third tendon type fans out in brushlike endings within the mesh and, via an elastic network and connecting fibrils, attaches to the juxtacanalicular and innerwall region. Redrawn with permission from Rohen JW. The evolution of the primate eye in relation to the problem of glaucoma. In Lutjen-Drecoll E, ed. Basic Aspects of Glaucoma Research. Stuttgart Schattauer Verlag 1982 3-33. Figure 5.3. Architecture of cribriform region and ciliary muscle tendon attachments in humans and higher monkeys. One type of tendon connects the anterior muscle tips to the scleral spur. A second type of tendon traverses the entire meshwork to insert into the corneal stroma.

Basic processes learning and memory

That is, the monkeys no longer required a period during which they learned to choose the rewarded object through trial-and-error. Rather, their response on the first trial of a new problem (whether it was correct or incorrect) informed them which object to choose on subsequent trials. This understanding of the solution to the problem based on one experience with two novel objects was called learning set, or learning to learn by Harlow. It is a good example of cognitive flexibility. Learning set is still used to study aspects of learning and cognitive flexibility in humans and non-humans. Animals of a multitude of species are capable of learning set, including cats, rats, squirrels, minks, sea lions, and several species of monkeys. The investigation of learning set in rats demonstrates the importance of considering the species-typical sensory capacities of an animal when studying cognition.

Natural Remedies for Dark Circle and Puffy Eyes

The presence of dark circles under your eyes can make you look tired and older. Lack of sleep is the main reason of dark circle. Some of the other reasons of dark circles are aging, dry skin, long hours sitting in front of computer or watching TV and unhealthy diet. Take 8 hours of sound sleep every night. Reducing the dark circles under your eyes and puffiness of eyes can often be achieved with organic eye care recipes and simple home remedies You can now start creating homemade, safe, affordable, organic and effective eye care remedies, serums and creams with ingredients available in your kitchen or nearby grocery store. To learn get Lleaon's Organic Eye Care Recipes eBook. This Ebook comes with 60 days monry back guarantee, with 5 Bonus including free eBooks.

Negative effects on skin of using lightening products

Mercury and hydroquinone are toxic in nature and therefore not considered safe by the FDA. Use of mercury compounds has been associated with brain and kidney complications. On the other hand, hydroquinone is said to have severe side effects such as cataract, dermatitis and blue-black skin discoloration. Time and again both of these ingredients have been warned as unsafe for skin by FDA. Despite of such hazardous effects, the companies continue to use these ingredients for making skin lightening products. Surprisingly, even customers of these products hardly care about the effects and merely concentrate on the skin color.

Best Permanent Makeup for Brides

The first thing that makes your makeup complete is your beautiful eyes. Dense eyes are the soul of an appealing look for your wedding day. Putting eyeliner and kajal on the day of your wedding can be quite troublesome, when you are running short of time, especially if you wear spectacles or contact lenses. With permanent liner and kohl, you can easily show off your attractive eyes all the time on the D-day and afterwards as well.

Tone Your Face Muscles With Face Exercises

A facial exercise is an excellent way to control skin from sagging as you age. Facial exercises also work just like other regular muscles exercises. It is the natural way to make your face look younger as these exercises firm up muscles and reduce wrinkles. Your face has approximately 60 muscles and exercising them will help in reducing the eye strain and releasing neck and facial tension. Nowadays it has become natural behavior of human being to adopt for quick fix solution, as evidenced by the millions of facial surgeries performed every year in US alone. These surgeries are quite costly and possibility of side effects cannot be ruled out. In actual there are rare cases when consistent application of natural therapies is not sufficient and surgical intervention is needed.

Liver Spots, Age Spots & Sun Spots - What They Are, How They Differ And How to Treat Them

Albinoism is a direct result of a lack of melanin. But as well as a being a skin pigmentation, melanin also performs another couple of important functions. It also absorbs and stores heat. This is particularly important to reptiles for example who use their melanin to store heat gained from the sun to allow their body temperatures to escalate. The other important function that melanin looks after is your vision. It actually limits the number of light rays that are allowed into your eye, and as such is responsible for making your eyesight that much sharper.

Skin and Hair Care during Holi

Holi is the festival of colours, celebrated in India and particularly popular in northern India. On Holi people enjoy themselves playing with different colours and celebrate the whole day with much pump and gaiety. While colours are the essence of holy but nowadays synthetic dyes and colours contains toxic effect have replaced the natural skin friendly colours. These toxic colours and dyes can leads to severe skin allergies and eye problems. Chemicals in colours may make hair roots brittle and scalp dry. It is best to take precautionary measures in advance to minimize the adverse effect of colours on your skin and hair.1. Never play holi with chemical colours.

Great Skin Care Tips For Beauty And Health

Eyeglasses and sunglasses should be cleaned regularly once a week, minimum The pores on your face and nose areas can be clogged by the dirt that has accumulated on the bridge of the glasses. Use a wet wipe or soap and water to keep your glasses clean. You should also keep other items, such as bandannas, that come into contact with your face clean.

Tips For Taking Care Of Your Skin

Clean your eyeglasses or sunglasses at least weekly if you wear these items everyday. Dirt can collect on the bridge, which ends up on your face, clogging pores around your nose. Take some soap and water and clean the bridge of the glasses to rid yourself of any residue.

Tips To Take Care Of Your Skin Better

Eyeglasses and sunglasses should be cleaned regularly once a week, minimum Glasses attract dirt and grime which can clog the pores of your skin, especially where the glasses sit on the nose. Just use a little soap and water to clean the bridge of your glasses effectively.

Take Care Of Your Skin Follow These Tips

If you regularly wear sunglasses or prescription glasses, clean them once a week or more. The accumulated dirt and oil on the bridge can clog pores on the face, particularly around the nose. Just use a little soap and water to clean the bridge of your glasses effectively.

Foods that Influence Aging Processes

Fish is known for having a low amount of fat, being a good source of omega 3 fatty acids, and offering a lot of protein. It has even been said that those with rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and autoimmune disease all see relief of symptoms when they eat fish as part of their diet. If you are pregnant and eat fish regularly, you can reduce the probability of delivering a premature baby, and when you are breast feeding, you can improve your baby's eyesight by eating more fish due to the omega 3 fatty acids in the breast milk.

Simple Skin Care Suggestions For You

Clean your sunglasses or prescription eyeglasses at least once a week if you wear them often. Gunk and dirt can build up on the nose piece of your glasses. It then gets transferred to your face. Pay special attention to the bridge, cleansing it thoroughly with cleanser and warm water.

Look Great With These Skin Care Tips

If you regularly wear sunglasses or prescription glasses, clean them once a week or more. The grime and oils around the bridge of the nose may clog the facial pores, but especially those on and around your nose. Using a bit of soap and water on the bridge is the best way to beat the dirt.

Solid Getting Older Advice On Staying Youthful And Healthy

Make sure you focus on ocular health as you age. You will naturally lose some of your eyesight as you get older but if you take the time to go for regular checkups and screenings, you may be able to catch any diseases that affect your sight and save any further deterioration.

Shingles Rash on Neck: Pain Causes, Diagnosis, Symptoms and Pictures

Fungal infections, like ringworm, can do it. You can catch these from animals like guinea pigs. Some diseases may be the culprit behind the unknown rash such as Fifth disease, rosacea, impetigo, eczema, or contact dermatitis. These may be accompanied by fever, chills, nausea, or a history of allergic reactions. Allergies which trigger a reaction must be confirmed by an allergist. They vary in intensity and severity. eczemas are rather harmless and superficial. Infections must be treated immediately. shingles is one other condition that requires medical attention. Shingles (herpes zoster) is the reactivation of a dormant virus left permanently in your body following a chickenpox contraction. They lay hibernating in nerve roots until set off years later causing a series of painful sores across the infected areas. Complications may accompany it. It can cause meningoencephalitis, myelitis, vasculopathy, and ocular impairments (vision problems).

How to get rid of Blood Blister inside Cheek: Treatments and removing tips.

Just as opticians will check your sight, they will also examine the complex structures of the eye for signs of hidden disease such as glaucoma. Dentists will routinely inspect your teeth but include as part of their standard examination, scrutiny of the soft tissues of the mouth to spot signs of other ailments which may be developing.

Vitiligo in Kids and Toddlers: Genetic Transmission, Segmental and Focal

Corticosteroids Corticosteroids are the go-to therapy, but they lead to epidermal atrophy in kids. Also, steroid use over for an extended length of time in youngsters can cause stria, glaucoma, hypothalamus-pituitary axis suppression (HPA axis),tachyphlaxis, telangiactesia, and system absorption. In addition, growth retardation and Cushing's syndrome often occur.

Impetigo on Face, Scalp, Nose, Mouth, Lips, Eyes, Ears, Chin and Neck

Several eye problems stemming from bacterial infections can initiate impetigo. For example, eyelid cellulitis starts as swelling and redness of the adjacent area. If this converts to a staph bacterium infection, symptoms of impetigo will appear around the eye. As rubbing the eyes is an instinctive action, the infection can hastily wander.

Orbital Cellulitis in Adults: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment

Orbital Cellulitis, also named, Postseptal Cellulitis and, on occasion, misdiagnosed as Periorbital Cellulitis. The former can have life-changing implications for eye health, the latter is not quite so problematical. Orbital Cellulitis is medically defined as inflammation any medical phrase or name with the suffix, itis', denotes inflamed tissue of the delicate structures located to the posterior of the orbital septum, in layman's terms, the eye socket. Habitually, orbital cellulitis is an imported infection from either nearby so, the front of the eye or eyelid, the sinuses or dental disease or, further afield, transported to this destination via the bloodstream and circulation. Statistics demonstrate that approximately 90 of those with orbital cellulitis also have sinusitis. A relatively uncommon illness, orbital cellulitis is more routinely diagnosed in children where multiple causes are generated from minor injuries, superficial eye problems and upper respiratory tract infections.

Third Nerve Palsy

Scheme Iii Cranial Nerve Palsy

Two recent series have found fair to poor visual and sensori-motor outcome in oculomotor nerve palsy paralysis of children with comparable mix of congenital, traumatic, and neoplastic cases.339,440 The best ophthalmologic outcome with measurable stereopsis was in the resolved cases (3 of 20 15 ) in the first study, and in 4 of 31 patients with partial third nerve palsy in the second study, 2 of whom had spontaneous resolution. In the first series, amblyopia therapy was most effective with congenital causes, but treatment results were poor with other causes young children with posttraumatic and postneoplastic oculomotor nerve injuries demonstrated the worst ophthalmologic outcomes.

Migraine Syndrome

Migraine Aura Fortification

Anywhere from age seven to 55 and is typically associated with nausea, vomiting, and diaphoresis. The attacks often occur on awakening in the morning, being particularly common around menses in women. The duration varies from minutes to hours, and patients are asymptomatic between the spells. Several studies have shown that patients with benign recurrent vertigo have either migraine themselves or strong family history of migraine. Furthermore, the episodes of vertigo have several features in common with migraine, including precipitation by alcohol, lack of sleep, emotional stress, and female preponderance. In their initial recommendations on criteria for the diagnosis of Meniere's disease, the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology Committee on Hearing and Equilibrium defined vestibular Meniere's disease as recurrent attacks of vertigo without associated auditory symptoms.

Ocular Dysgenesis

Lateral Canthus Dermoid

Studies of ocular malformations induced by teratogen exposure have been helpful in identifying sensitive periods during development. Microphthalmia and anophthalmia may result from insult at a number of developmental stages. Acute exposure to teratogens during early gastrulation stages results in an overall deficiency of the neural plate with subsequent reduction in size of the optic vesicle. This aberration results in microphthalmia, which may be associated with a spectrum of secondary malformations including anterior segment dysgenesis, cataract, and PHPV.24,27,28 Deficiency in size of the globe as a whole is often associated with a corresponding small palpebral fissure. Because the fissure size is determined by the size of the optic vesicle (most likely during its contact with the surface ectoderm), support is provided for a malformation sequence beginning at the time of formation of the optic sulcus or optic vesicle.

Irritant Gases

The site of pulmonary injury is most dependent on the water solubility of the gas. High-solubility gases (e.g., ammonia, sulfur dioxide, formaldehyde, or methyl iso-cyanate) can affect all exposed mucous membranes, including ocular (irritation, erythema, and conjunctivitis, and with heavy exposure delayed-onset of cataracts), nasal (irritation, congestion, rhinorrhea, and erythema), facial burns (skin and lip), pharyn-geal (throat and tongue irritation, burns and edema), and laryngeal (burns, edema, and obstruction) injuries. Intermediate-solubility gases such as chlorine may produce upper-airway irritation, but the mucous membrane irritation is not as intense as for highly soluble gases. Because of its intermediate solubility, chlorine's effect extends more distal, producing both upper- and lower-airway injury, and pulmonary edema.

Sclerocornea

Sclerocornea

Human anterior segment dysgenesis encompasses a broad spectrum of malformations including posterior embryotoxon, anterior displacement of Schwalbe's line, Axenfeld's anomaly (anterior displacement of Schwalbe's line associated with peripheral iris strands to Schwalbe's line), Peters' anomaly (central corneal opacity with absence of Descemet's membrane and endothelium in the area of the opacity), Rieger's anomaly (iris stromal hypoplasia with pseudopolycoria and iridocorneal attachments), or other combinations of iridocorneal or iridolen-ticular adhesions associated with various anterior segment anomalies. Congenital glaucoma is frequently associated with anterior segment dysgenesis syndromes. Congenital Glaucoma Although glaucoma may accompany any of the anterior segment syndromes described previously, elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is usually not present at birth, in contrast to true congenital glaucoma.

Cones And Rods

(1993) affirm that there is no evidence of a reduction in the density of the foveal cone peaks, although the interperson variability is high. The loss of foveal photo-receptors begins to manifest itself in persons over 90 years old. As previous studies haven't precisely specified the anatomic location of the observed zones of the retina, it was difficult to confront the changes in retinal anatomy with age-related changes in visual function. Curcio et al. (1993) have examined, using digital computer imaging, the topography of the retina of healthy eyes of people divided into four groups by age Group 1 (27-37 years), group 2 (44-58 years), group 3 (61-75 years), and group 4 (82-90 years) in order to distinguish paraphysiological changes resulting from aging and or from pathological changes. It was seen that in the central 43 of the ocular retina studied, rods but not cones are lost during the course of the life.

Ginseng And Diabetes

Such rapid liquid excretion leads in turn to the characteristic thirst of diabetics. Lack of insulin may also be due to autoimmune damage to the islets of Langerhans. In diabetic patients protein and fat metabolism is enhanced with the breakdown of tissue proteins, lipids and fatty acids and the resultant occurrence of nitrogenous and ketone compounds in urine. Overweight persons are more prone to diabetes and have a shorter life expectancy. Complications of untreated diabetes include cataracts and blindness, ketoacidosis (high urinary ketone levels), gangrene of the feet, heart disorders, aetherosclerosis and renal failure.

Vitamins Golden Rice

Millions of people in the world suffer from vitamin A deficiency (VAD), which leads to vision impairment and increased susceptibility to diarrhoea, respiratory diseases, and measles. In Southeast Asia it is estimated that five million children develop xerophthalmia (alteration in the structure of the conjunctiva and cornea found predominantly in children) every year. This problem may be equally severe in certain areas of Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. Overall, around 500,000 children annually become irreversibly blind as a result of VAD.

Down Syndrome

Adults with DS show a variety of age-related changes in physical and functional capacities suggestive of premature or accelerated aging (Martin, 1978), including changes in skin tone, hypogonadism, increased frequency of cataracts, increased frequency of hearing loss, hypothyroidism, seizures,

Central Vision

Measure distance vision by using a test card of letters of different sizes. Distance vision is expressed as visual acuity (VA). This is a test of macular function. In the examining room use a Snellen card placed 6 m from the patient. There are also cards for use at 3 m from the patient (Figure 1-5A). The card should be well lit. Figure 1-5. A. Plastic 6 x 9-cm cards for measuring visual acuity at 3 m. B. Plastic pinhole for verifying a refractive error. Figure 1-5. A. Plastic 6 x 9-cm cards for measuring visual acuity at 3 m. B. Plastic pinhole for verifying a refractive error. If the patient can read all the letters except one in the 40-ft line, her vision is recorded as 20 40-1. Similarly, if she can read all the letters except two in the 60-ft line, her vision is 20 60-2. If she misses more than two letters in any line, her visual acuity is that of the next line up. Test visual acuity in each eye with the patient's other eye covered and with both eyes open.

Word of Thanks

We would like to thank all who have so generously contributed to the development of the overall concept and final realization of this book. First of all there are the many students and residents we persuaded to act as didactic guinea pigs for us. Their remarks were helpful and encouraging, sometimes keenly observed Awkward style Their contributions were substantial. The same holds true for a number of residents and fellows as well as staff radiologists in our respective departments poring over parts of the book and sharing their views on particular features. To ensure that the cases provided were not only radiologi-cally correct but also reflected the referring physicians' point of view, we asked quite a number of colleagues from other specialties to review the respective chapters. In particular we would like to thank Professor Hartmann (Ophthalmology), Dr. Schlunz (Facial and Plastic Surgery), Dr. Matthias (Ear Nose and Throat Surgery), Dr.

Osmotic Drugs

Osmotically active ocular hypotensive agents were initially tried early in the twentieth century, when Andre Cantonnet described the oral use of sodium chloride and lactose for lowering intraocular pressure (IOP).1 In 1914, Emil Hertel influenced IOP by intravenous injection of anisotonic solutions.2 Many of these agents, such as concentrated saline, sodium carbonate, sugars, and gum acacia, while producing adequate ocular responses, did not stand the test of time because of their untoward side effects and the inadequate duration of their osmotic effect. After the ocular hypotensive effect of intravenous urea was described in 1958 and was further studied in glaucoma patients,3,4 this drug became the first hyperosmotic agent to achieve widespread use in glaucoma therapy. The use of urea has been superseded by other osmotic drugs in current ophthalmic clinical practice (figure 8.1).

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